+## morphology
+
+(This information is just copied from some documentation I found on my
+ computer and may not be entirely accurate yet.
+[][@:Lady]{.sig})
+
+### morphological word classes
+
+Zheshoi has three main categories of words which may serve as a
+ morphological stem: articles, nominals, and verbals.
+_Nominals_{as=dfn} correspond roughly to English nouns, and
+ _verbals_{as=dfn} correspond roughly to English verbs;
+ _articles_{as=dfn} are a somewhat unique word class whose role lies
+ somewhere between that of English articles and determiners
+ (_the_{as=i}, _a_{as=i}, _some_{as=i}…) and that of a pronoun.
+In addition to these three categories of word, Zheshoi also features a
+ number of other morphemes, including inflections, determiners, and
+ adpositions.
+These morphemes are represented through affixes or clitics, attached to
+ article, nominal, or verbal stems.
+
+### article morphology
+
+#### lexical stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=after>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mi style=font-weight:bold><abbr title=Null>∅</abbr></mi>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=before>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+Articles are used to mark grammatical, as well as some lexical,
+ features for the associated (possibly hypothetical) nominal lexeme.
+As pro⹀forms referring to a nominal antecedent, they cannot have a
+ lexical root, and consequently their lexical stem is always null.
+
+#### derived stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=after>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Numeral>NUM</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=false form=postfix>+</mo>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Quantity>QNT</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Amount>AMT</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Location>LOC</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=before>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+Although articles do not have a lexical root, they do mark a number of
+ lexical properties, which can conventionally be thought of as
+ _succeeding_ the null lexical stem.
+These properties are: amount, as a numeral or quantifier, and location.
+None of these properties are required, and the inflected stem of an
+ article may be null.
+
+Numerals are not a distinct word class in Zheshoi, but are instead
+ morphologically marked on articles.
+This differs from the gramatical feature of _number_ (also marked on
+ articles, but through inflection rather than derivation), which
+ simply categorizes words as singular or plural.
+Numeral morphemes are akin to English cardinal numbers (_one_{as=i},
+ _two_{as=i}, _three_{as=i}, ⁊·c), and as these morphemes may
+ (hypothetically) be infinitely large, their structure can be quite
+ complex.
+
+#### inflected stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Definiteness>DEF</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Plurality>PL</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Negation>NEG</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi mathvariant=normal><abbr title=Interrogative>Q</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Irreality>IRR</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Specificity>SPEC</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+The grammatical properties encoded by articles are definiteness,
+ plurality, and irreality (negation or interrogativity).
+Together, these properties define the _specificity_{as=dfn} of the
+ article.
+Although Zheshoi requires the specificity of nominals to be defined, it
+ does not require them to be marked in all cases, and the resulting
+ inflected stem may be null.
+
+### nominal morphology
+
+#### lexical stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=after>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mi style=font-weight:bold>√ROOT</mi>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=before>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+The nominal lexical stem consists of a single root.
+
+#### derived stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Augmentative>𝐴𝑈𝐺</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Diminutive>𝐷𝐼𝑀</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Intensifier>INT</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Verbalizer>VBZ</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Actor>ACT</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Instrument>INST</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Generic nominalizer>NM</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Nominalizer>NMZ</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Class change>CC</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+The lexical properties which are marked on nominals include intensity,
+ as either augmentative or diminuitive, and class⹀change, through
+ verbalizers and nominalizers.
+Augmentatives and diminuitives are marked via reduplicative prefixes,
+ and so are italicized in the diagram above.
+
+Nominalization is required for lexical stems which are verbal in
+ nature; in addition, a nominal lexical stem may be verbalized and
+ then nominalized again.
+
+#### inflected stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+Nominals are not themselves inflected; instead, their associated
+ article is.
+
+### verbal morphology
+
+#### lexical stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=after>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mi style=font-weight:bold>√ROOT</mi>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace linebreak=badbreak linebreakstyle=before>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+The verbal lexical stem consists of a single root.
+
+Verbal stems are classified into three groups, depending on their final
+ syllable:8--:
+
+- Those which end with a voiced consonant and R⹀coloured vowel,
+- Those which end with a devoiced consonant and R⹀coloured vowel, and
+- Those which end with a voiced consonant and lambda.
+
+This classification is maintained thru derivations and impacts the form
+ of the inflections.
+
+All verbals also have a definitite (positive or negative) assigned
+ vowel harmony, even when the verbal contains only neutral vowels.
+This harmony will influence derivations and inflections.
+
+#### derived stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Developmental>𝐷𝐸𝑉</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Habitual>𝐻𝐴𝐵</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <msub>
+ <mi><abbr title=Aspect>ASP</abbr></mi>
+ <mn>1</mn>
+ </msub>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Lexical stem>𝗟𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Verbalizer>VBZ</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Class change>CC</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Perfective>PFV</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <msub>
+ <mi><abbr title=Aspect>ASP</abbr></mi>
+ <mn>2</mn>
+ </msub>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+Verbals may be lexically marked for aspect in two places:
+A partially⹀reduplicative prefix indicates the habitual or
+ developmental aspects, and a suffix indicates perfectivity.
+These affixes can be combined.
+(This analysis of aspect as “lexical”, and not “grammatical”, is a
+ morphological argument, not a syntactic one.)
+
+The habitual prefix is _Cæ‐_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz}, where
+ _C_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz} is the initial consonant in the word.
+The develompental prefix is _Caı‐_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz} for
+ positive verbals and _Cwi‐_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz} for negative
+ ones.
+
+The perfective suffix can take the following forms:8--:
+
+- On verbals which end with a voiced consonant and R⹀coloured vowel,
+ the R⹀colouring is dropped and _‐ɂwæꝛ_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz}
+ is added.
+
+- On verbals which end with a devoiced consonant and R⹀coloured vowel,
+ the R⹀colouring is dropped and _‐hwæꝛ_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz}
+ is added.
+
+- On verbals which end with a voiced consonant and lambda, the final
+ syllable is replaced with _‐Cʀæı.ɂ_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz},
+ where _C_{as=i lang=art-Latn-x-qjz} is the _devoiced_ form of the
+ consonant.
+
+#### inflected stem
+
+```=html
+<math display=block overflow=scale>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=mediummathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Negation>NEG</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mi><abbr title=Deontic>DEO</abbr></mi>
+ </mstyle>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Irreality>IRR</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <msub>
+ <mi><abbr title=Mood>MOD</abbr></mi>
+ <mn>1</mn>
+ </msub>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false rspace=verythinmathspace>[</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Derived stem>𝗗𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=verythinmathspace>]</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Future>FUT</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Infinitive>INF</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Present>PRS</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Past>PST</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Tense>TNS</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Definiteness>DEF</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Honorific>HON</abbr></mi>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mi><abbr title=Plurality>PL</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Specificity>SPEC</abbr></mi>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <mspace width=mediummathspace />
+ <mover accent=false>
+ <mrow>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>{</mo>
+ <mstyle scriptlevel=+1>
+ <mtable align=baseline,1 rowspacing=0>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Alethic>ALE</abbr>‐<abbr title=Jussive>JUS</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Deductive>DDUC</abbr>‐<abbr title=Hortative>HORT</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Mirative>MIR</abbr>‐<abbr title=Interrogative>Q</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ <mtr>
+ <mtd>
+ <mi><abbr title=Optative>OPT</abbr>‐<abbr title=Permissive>PERM</abbr></mi>
+ </mtd>
+ </mtr>
+ </mtable>
+ </mstyle>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=true symmetric=false>}</mo>
+ </mrow>
+ <mover accent=true>
+ <mo stretchy=true>⏞</mo>
+ <msub>
+ <mi><abbr title=Mood>MOD</abbr></mi>
+ <mn>2</mn>
+ </msub>
+ </mover>
+ </mover>
+ <msub>
+ <mo fence=true stretchy=false lspace=mediummathspace>]</mo>
+ <mi><abbr title=Inflected stem>𝗜𝗦</abbr></mi>
+ </msub>
+</math>
+```
+
+Zheshoi verbals are heavily inflected, marking mood, tense, and
+ specificity—the latter of which must agree with the article of the
+ verbal’s subject.
+Each modal suffix can indicate two possible moods; which is intended is
+ signalled by the presence or absence of an additional (deontic) modal
+ prefix.
+
Lady’s Gitweb / Wiki / blobdiff